Writing as Embellishment

The sacred Hebrew language has played a vital part in the life of Jewish communities for centuries. Hebrew as a language emphasizes the uniqueness of the people but also the sacral quality of books or objects adorned with Hebrew letters. These are precisely the reasons why Hebrew, both as a language and as a writing system, has been a focal element of Jewish iconography – ever since the times that Jews have expressed themselves artistically. Early floor mosaics have Hebrew letters embedded in them, objects from Jewish ceremonial arts throughout the ages and in any hamlet of the diaspora offer an abundant diversity of Hebrew inscriptions.



    Presently, we will focus on Hebrew letters found on objects that were used during Jewish ceremonies and rituals. These inscriptions can be divided into two main groups. On the one hand, they serve to illustrate the sacral character and function of the object; on the other hand, they serve for conveying secondary information on owners, donors, family relationships and the like.
    Since these objects can be found in any Jewish household, the mezuzah deserves special attention as an archetypical object. The name is a loan from the "door post" which is exactly where the mezuzah is affixed. It is a cylinder-shaped object and contains a text written on parchment from the "Shema Yisrael" (from Deuteronomy 6:4–9 and 11:13–21). This tradition goes back to the early Middle Ages. Usually, the text comprises the three Hebrew letters Shin, Dalet and Jud – in Hebrew pronunciation "Shaddai" – that are also found on the backside of the parchment. "Shaddai" means "The Almighty" and is one of the names of God. The letters can also be read as an abbreviation of the Hebrew term "Shomer Dalte Yisrael," meaning the "gatekeeper of Israel."

    Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, ritual object were produced everywhere where Jews lived. They typically included inscriptions informing as to the use of the object. These objects are made of gold, silver, ivory, wood and even paper; they served for use at home or for ritualistic use at the synagogue. Especially Thora scrolls were adorned with ornamental lettering. In the Western diaspora, inscriptions were affixed to textile binders, the embroidered cover, the crown and the staff. In the East, inscriptions can be found on wooden or silver boxes, cloth wrappings and implements.
    The previously mentioned information regarding donors is another important category of Hebrew inscriptions. Individual members of the community were proud to donate items to the community as a whole and thus leave their imprint for posterity. Although vanity does play a role in this tradition, religious devotion is the dominant driving force. Donating religious implements to the community is viewed as charity and therefore as religious duty. Any donation was usually coupled with a duty for the community to use the item at certain times or on certain occasions. Moreover, a donor could expect that the community would provide any means necessary for the maintenance of the object. This tradition has been especially well researched for the Jewish community in Amsterdam. To be noted here is the fact that Ashkenazi Jews placed a special importance on having their names inscribed on donated items. Sephardim, on the other hand, did not practice the tradition. When the donated items were used, the name of the donor was often mentioned, thus becoming a "nickname" for ritual objects during services.

Different types of typefaces
Nowadays, we differentiate between three or four Hebrew typefaces:

1)   monumental square face
1a) the somewhat less monumental semi-square face
2)   the semi-cursive manuscript typeface
3)   the cursive writing for daily use

There are Ashkenazi, Sephardim, Italian, Byzantine and Oriental variants. This is the reason why there are dozens of types of Hebrew typefaces. The main difference between Hebrew typefaces that were in use in the Islamic spheres of influence (including the Iberian peninsula) and those in the Christian geographic regions can be linked to the writing implements that were available. In Islamic regions the typical writing implement was made of reed, while the by far more flexible quill pen was common in the Christian areas. Using a quill pen, it was possible to create pronounced differences between thick and thin lines. This was especially important because Ashkenazi square and semi-cursive typefaces were visibly fashioned after the model of non-Hebrew Gothic typefaces that had similar variations in the line thickness. In addition, the rather vertical alignment of Ashkenazi writing also clearly suggests a Gothic background.
    In contrast, Sephardic and Jewish scripts from the Orient harmonize with their cultural surroundings as well as showing, due to the writing utensil, considerably more rounded shapes. The introduction of the printing press in the 15th century, however, ensured that these geographical differences gradually dissipated. In Amsterdam and Venice – the centers of the Hebrew art of printing – the rounder, Sephardic letters became commonplace during the 16th and 17th centuries, although Ashkenazi writers adhered to their traditional style for Thora scrolls and religious texts.

Inscriptions on fabric

    Artists who created the inscriptions on ceremonial objects always saw themselves faced with a conglomerate of styles and writing traditions to choose from, which is from where they drew their inspiration. The shape of Hebrew letters in inscriptions often follows certain local traditions of belonging, but still not moving too far away from the typefaces of the period or of the region that were in common use for such writing. At the same time, the material properties of the substrate on which typeface was applied can negatively impact the stylistic qualities of an inscription. Thus, deciphering the inscriptions on numerous items made of silver it is an art in and of itself. The results are better on wood or textiles; but not always.
    It is not understood to what extent professional scribes were involved in the production of such inscriptions. This applies, for example, for the so-called Thora cloths, the "binders" or "mapot" that were common in German synagogues starting in the 16th century. A  typical binder was made of the cloths that are wrapped around a boy during his circumcision. These covers were artfully ornamented and embroidered or painted with Hebrew letters that would indicate the name of the child, of the child's father as well as the date of birth according to the Jewish calendar. Added to this was a benediction: "May he grow to Thora, chuppah and good deeds. Amen sela." Between his first and third birthdays, the boy would hand the cover over to his synagogue. In Yiddish, this ritual was referred to as "Mappe schultragen," or taking the binder to school. At the Bar Mitzwa of the boy, the fabric would be used to bind the Thora scroll; in some regions, the binder was used as chuppah decoration at the wedding. The ornamentation of these binders are examples of the imagination and the wild abundance of typefaces that is unequalled in comparison with the books in the Hebrew language. But we know almost nothing about the actual circumstances that surrounded the creation of these binders. The same applies for the sources that inspired the artists and – aside from a few exceptions – the possible collaboration that may have occurred between artists and scribes.
    Therefore, with regard to the use of Hebraic letters for the embellishment of ritualistic objects, the Thora binders may serve as pars pro toto: we do not know the artists, nor their source of inspiration and can only assume that they worked together with the scribes or calligraphers whatever the case may be.   

Emile Schrijver is Director of the Menasseh ben Israel Institute for Jewish Studies in Social and Cultural History in Amsterdam. He is interested in Hebrew bibliography and the architecture of the Middle Ages and Early Modern times.